Describe how to receive messages more effectively, identify what eauses breakdowns in communication, explain the process of using confrontation, and discuss how to offer constructive criticism.

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Review the attached pdf. file concerning readings from: Weinberg, R., & Gould, D. (2015).  Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. (6th ed.).  Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Compose a 2 to 3 page (i.e., double- spaced, 12 point-font) paper in order to assist coaches and athletes with demonstrating effective communication concerning athletic performance. Within this paper, present a separate section for the following:

1. ·            Identify and briefly describe three (3) types of communication. Please identify each type of communication in BOLD font.
2. ·            Identify and briefly describe three (3) types of listening. Please identify each type of listening in BOLD font.
3. ·            Identify three (3) barriers to effective communication. Please identify each barrier to effective communication in BOLD font.
4. ·            Briefly explain the “Sandwich Approach” for providing criticism.
5. ·            Present a personal example for demonstrating the “Sandwich Approach.”

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l. describe the communication process, describe how to send messages more effectively,

describe how to receive messages more effectively, identify what eauses breakdowns in communication, explain the process of using confrontation, and discuss how to offer constructive criticism.

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;* You can communicate without rnotivating but ii is impossible to motivate without communi- +ating.”

‘ -JcirnThcmpson, fornerGeorge.-,ft:[“:rf#S::,:

‘ *’ People learn how to think by communicatlng.

So in our prograrn, wo not only employ an offensive system and a defensive system*we employ a communication system. ”

– ‘-re Krzyzel^,iski, Dul,ie Uni..,ersity i-nen’s basketball coach

,I*l-n ffi L{ r”} [eaetielm, rr:tmgr,&f, ter ou, -:11. lives, certainly is a critical element in sport *d physical activity settings. Exercise leaders must :+nvince sedentary individuals to engage in exercise. 1″.”-r res11.r now brilliant a coach is in planning strategy ;;,d in the technical aspects of the game, success still ,=pends on being able to communicate effectively not

“:al1’with athletes but also with parents, offrcials, assis-

=nt coaches, the media, and other eoaches. Physical -iucation teachers and certified athletic trainers also :3\-e to communicate in varied arenas. In essence, it’s

not what you know but how well you can communicate informafion to othen;.

Good communication skills are among the most important ingredients contributing to performance enhancement and the personal growth of spofi and exercise participar:ts. In fact, the importance of good interpersonal relationships in sport and exer- cise settings Ied to “r special issue of Psychologl,, of Sport and Exercise edited by Jowett and Wylleman (2006). Studies have shown that Olympic swimmers look to their coaches’ social competence relative to communication even before their coaches’ technical skills (Phillippe & Seiler,2006), that athletes prefer different amounts of information and emotions fi’om their coaches’ pregame talks (Vargas-Tonsing & Guan, 2007), that differences exist in the communi- cation pattems of more versus less successful doubles tennis teams (Lausic, Tennebaum, Eccles, Jeong, & Johnson, 2009), ard that the nonverbai behaviors of and clothing worn by athletes influence what rve expect from them and ratings of their performance capabilities (Buscombe, Greenless, Holder, Thel- well, & Rimmer, 2006). To be a successful sport

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Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology

and exercise professional, you must develop strong communication skills.

Although much has been written about communi- cation in general (e.g., Beebe, Beebe, & Redmond, 1996; Infante, Rancer, & Womack, 1997; von Gunten, Ferris, & Emanuel, 2000), sporl psychologists have begun to study communication only in the past decade. Therefore, we often have to apply general commu- nication findings to sport and exercise settings. But regardless of the setting, one of the biggest problems in communication is that we often expect others to be mind-readers. Frequently, coaches, rlthletes, teachers, and parents communicate in “shor1rand,” assuming that a simple gesture will be enough to convey their feelings and unique perspectiYe.

It should not be surprising thatbreakdowns in com- munication often are at the root ofpn:blems as coaches talk to athletes or teachers talk to students. Ineffective communication may lead individuals to dislike each other, lose confidence in each other; refuse to listen to each other; and disagree rvith each other and may cause a host of other interpersonal problems (Whetten

& Cameron, 1991). This can lead to remarks such as “I just can’t talk to him,” “If I’ve told her once, I’ve told her a thousand times,” or “When I talk to him, it goes in one ear and out the other.” On the other side, athletes and students often have these kinds ofthings to say about coaches and teachers: “She never explains why she does things,” “He’s so hard to approach,” and “She’s always shouting and yelling.” Clearly, prob- lems exist on both sides ofcomrnunication. Repairing these communication gaps is essential in the leaming and coaching environment. Following is a quote from an Olympic soccer player on a breal:down in commu- nication between coach and athlete

” So*” time ago the coach decided not to include me in the start-up team for several matches.This uras something I had never experienced before, and it was’difficult to cope with. I was a regular men”lber o{ the national team at the time and rlid not notice that my performance had declrnred in any way.lf he had talked with me and told me his reasons, the problem could have been solved immediately and a lot of frustration could have heen avoided. Hegular ta{ks between the coaeh and the player can mak; all the differ- ence and should be high on ttre coach’s prior- ity list. (Jowett, Paull, Pensgaard, Hoegmo, & Riise” 2005, p. 166)”

Understanding the Communication Process

All one-way communication follows the same basic process. As the first step, one person decides to send a message to another. Then the sender translates (encocles) thoughts into a message. As the third step, the message is channeled (usually through spoken words but sometimes through nonverbal means, such as sign language) to the receiver. Next, the receiver interprets (elecodes) the message. Finally, the receiver thinks about the message and responds internally (e.9., by becoming interested, getting mad, or feeling relieved). Figure i0.1 outlines this process.

Purposes of Communication Although the same process occurs in all communica- tions, the purposes of the communication can vary. You might communicate to persuade a person in an aerobics class that he can lose weight by exercising regularly, to evaluate how well a gymnast performs her routine on the balance beam, to inform students how to perform a new volleyball skill, to psych up your team for a tough opponent, or to deal with a conflict between two players on your team, However, all communication contains some content as well as relational (how we feel about someone) messages.

Communication may incorporate several pulposes at once. For example, let’s say an aerobic dance instructor wants to include harder and more vigorous movements in the class’exercise regimen. He would try motivating and persuading (to convince) the class rcgardingthe benefits ofthis added exercise and then inform them how to perform the new skill.

Types ol Gommunication Communication occurs in two basic ways: interper- sonally and intrapersonally. Usually when we talk about communicating, we mean inten;rersonal eom- munieation, which involves at least two people and a meaningful exchange. The sender intends to affect the response ofa particular person or persons. The message or content may be received by the person for whom it was intended, by persons for whom it was not intended, or both. Sometimes that message gets distorted so that the sender’s intended message does not get transmitted.

An important parl of interpersonal communication involves nonverbal colnmunication, or nonverbal cues. Research has indicated that this type of com-

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Communication

E ,o,”,on to send a message aboul something

A Encodingolthe message by the sender

E channel through which the mossage is transmitted to receiver

E tnterral response by the reeeiver to the message

g Decrding of the mes3age by the rece ver

,i’:ijfiE 1f;.1 The process of communication, +i-:rinted, by permission, from R. Martens, 1987 Coaches gulde to sport psycfiology {Champai;gn, lL: Human Kinetics), 48.

=ilnication is also critical to imparting and receiving information. In one study, participants watching a tennis

=ratch saw the players only between points-they never

:t$’ a player actually hit a ball or play a point. Still, :sout 75% of the time they could pick out who was ‘* inning the match. The nonverbal cues that players ,:rhibited between points were strong enough to com-

=unicate who was ahead or behind. ln another study,

:jje opponents’prematch nonverbal behaviors and their :iothingwere found to influence ratings ofperfofinance :ad the outcome expectations of observers (Buscombe rr al., 2006), Jowett and Frost (2001) found that black i”xcerplayers viewed their coaches’ ethnic background :s a meaningful factor influencing their relationships. Fven though their coaches did not say anything that -rould influence their personal relationship with the players, the players made certain assumptions based 1.rn how the coach looked (not what he said).

Intrapersonal communieation (self-talk) is the ,’ommunication we have with ourselves. We talk a iot to ourselves, and this inner dialogue is important, \\trat we say to ourselves usually helps shape and pre- dict how we act and perform. For instance, perhaps a

1’oungster in a physical education class is afraid ofper- :brming a new skill, the tennis serve, and tells herself fiat she can’t do it and will look foolish if she kies. This intrapersonal communication increases the chances rhat she will not execute the skill properly. Self’-talk can also affect motivation. If someone is trying to lose

weight and tells hinrself that he’s looking slimmer and feeling good, he is irnproving his motivation with his self+alk. {See chapter 16 for more on self-talk.)

KEY P0INT Internal dialogue, or intrapersonal com- munication, affects motivation and behavior.

It is also important to recognize that the commu- nications of exercise leaders, teachers, and coaches influence the selftalk of their athletes. Researchers (Zourbanos, Hatzi georgiadis, & Theodorakis, 2007 ; Zourbanos, Hatzigeorgiadis, Tsiakaras, Chroni, & Theodorakis, 2010) found that both positive and negative statements made by coaches influerced their athletes’self+alk. In particular, positive and negative feedback by coaches produced more positive and negative self-talk, respectively, in their athletes. Thus, interpersonal comrnunication influences intrapersonal communication.

$rl{iru Ule ssaseqEleqltJa 1y__ _ Effective commurdcation often makes the difference between success and failure for teachers, coacheso and exercise leadlrs. Thus, they need to understand how to send effective messages, both verbally and nonverbally. Fortunately, research has indicated that effective communication skills can be taught to sport and exercise leaders, teachers, and coaches.

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Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Su m:stt um iceEEsgl Se l$-Eua [gIatB CIn Assessm ent

Think about how you communicate with others. How often do you lind yourself engaging in the following behaviors? ln the space provided, indicate whether you engage in the behavior.

I = Almost always 2 = Usually 3 = Sometimes 4 = Seldom 5 = Almosl never

1. I pay attention primarily to what an individual is saying and give little aitention to what he or she is doing.

2.1 let an individual’s lack of organization get in the way of my listening.

3. I interrupt if I ha’re something I want to say.

4. I stop listening vrhen I think I understand the idea whether or not the reporter has finished.

5. t fail to repeat back what has been said before I react.

6. I give little verbal or nonverbalfeedback to people l’m listening to.

i 7. I pay attention to only the words being used rather than the words, tone, and pitch.

8.1 let emotion-laden words make me angry.

9.lf I consider the subject boring I stop paying attention.

10. I find myself unable to limit my criticism to a friend’s performance.

11. I find that getting in the face of a communicator gets my point across.

12, I allow distractions to interfere with my concentration.

13. I do not recognize when I am too upset or tired to speak or listen.

14. I raise my voice when I want someone to pay attention to what I am saying.

15. I try to give advice when someone is telling me his or her problems.

Add up your responses; to the 15 items. The higher your score (highest score is 75), the more effective are your communication :kills. Your total score is less important than your responses to specific items, Scores of 1 dnd 2 typically mean that you can improve on those aspects of your communication. Get feedback from others you typically communicate with to verify the information from this questionnaire.

John Madden, longfime successful coach of the Los Angeles Raiders and theu a football commentatot, summarized the nature of successful communication in the sport context:

” Co*runication between a eoach and his players was being able to say good things, bad things, and averagr: things. Converselg it’s being able to listen to good, bad, and average things . . . . I trierd to talk to each player. Sometimes it was merely a quick “How ya’doin’?’o Somel imes it was a con- versation. But by [my] talking to them every day, they didn’t feel sornething was up when I would stop to talk to them. {Syer, 1986, pp. 99-fl0;rr

Along these lines, Hardy, Burke, and Crace (2005 t noted that individuals (coaches in particular) need to feel good about their communication style. What are your strengths and areas of improvement regarding communication? To help increase your self-awareness about your communication style, we have adapted and provided a self-assessment scale (refer to the “Com- munication SElf-Evaluation Assessment”) developed by communication expert Lawrenee Rosenfeld (Ros- enfeld & Wildeq 1990). A study by Millar, Oldhan, and Donovan (2011)that investigated coaches’ awareness of their verbal communications with athletes showed that self-awareness is extremely important. The researchers monitored the verbal inskuctions rowing coaches provided to rowers, and coaches completed

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3 questionnaire about their perceived verbal behavior.

Results revealed that coaches were inaccurate when ;ecalling what they said to athletes. Coaches were ,:’lserved giving predominantly concurrent (while Ithletes were rowing) and prescriptive (what’to do) :rstructions but gave little evaluative (was it any ;*od?) or affective (how did it feel?) feedback. These lnaccurate perceptions by coaches can be problem- rric. Although coaches may think they verbalized istructions or information to athletes (iike providing ,*,.,aluative feedback), this may have neverreallybap- pened. This highlights the need to develop methods for :ncreasing coaches’ self-awareness of comrttrnication.

In the following sections we briefly discuss inter- lersonal and intrapersonal communication, but our :.:cus is on nonverbal communication*a subtle irocess that is critical to imparting and receiving :ntbrmation.

Uerbal Messages lerbal messages should be sent clearly and received and interpreted correctly. Bill Parcells, successful :botball coach of the New York Giants, New England Patriots, and New York Jets and general manager of

Tins lor lmorovinq Gommunication

Communication

the Miami Dolphins, understands the importance of both the effective sending and receiving of a message: “When sending a mesriage, it’s not enough to be honest and accurate. The impaet of the message will hinge on who’s receiving it md what they’re willing to take in at that time” (Parcells & Coplon, 1995, p, 117). In essence, we have to pick the right time and place to deliver our communication. Unforfunately, coaches and parents often pi<;k the most inappropriate time (e.g., right after a game or in front of the team) to deliver their commuriication.

Breakdowns occur because messages are sent ineffectively, are not received, or are misinterpreted. Sometimes the problem is simply the lack of trust between coach and athlete or teacher and student (Burke, 199-l). More often, the problem is with the transmission of the rnessage. Some people talk too much, rambling on about things that bore or distract others, whereas others talk too little, not communicat- ing enough information.

Nonverbal Messages People are often unaware ofthe many nonverbal cues they use in communicating. In fact, estimations from

Here are some ways to improve coach-athlete and teacher-student communications:

. Convey rationales. Explain why you expect (or why you don’t expect) certain behaviors from participants.

Express empathy, not sympathy. Sympathy is the concern that a co rch might show for a player. Howev€r, empathy involves being sensitive to another individual’s feelings and connecting ernotionally to the other person. The focus is on undersianding the emotional experience of the athlete and then responding in a manner that conveys understanding.

Use a communication style that is comfortable for you. Don’t try to copy the communication style of another coach orteacher just because that individual’s style happens to be successfulforthat person. Flather, communicate consistently according to your own personality and teaching style.

Learn how to become more empathetic.by placing yourself in the shoes of your athletes. Show genuine concern for them as people and work with them to find appropriate solutions.

. Use the positive approach when communicating, which includes the tiberal use of praise, encouragement, support, and positive reinforcement-

. Always acknowledge the greetings of others-a hello and a smile are easy ways to communi- cate positive feelings.

. lf you have an open-door policy fdr your students and athletes, show that you are sincere about it.

. Be consistent in administering discipline. From “Principles o, efective team building interventions in sport: A direct services approach at Penn State Universityi’ D. Yukelson, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,T*96,Taylor& Francis Ltd, adapted by permission of publisher (Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandl.co,utdjournals),

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Foundalions o{ Sport and Exereise Psychology

various researchers indicate that approximately 50% to 70% of the information conveyed in a communication is nonverbal (Burke, 2005). A study of track and field coaches and athletes found that communication was approximately 50% verbal and 50% nonverbal for both coaches and athletes drrring practice and train- ing. During competition, nonverbal communication increased to approximately 75Yo for coaches and 66Yofor athletes (Rata, Rata, Rata, Mares, & Melinte, 2012). Therefore, it is critical that coaches, athletes, and exercise leaders be extrt:mely observant of their nonverbal cues (as well as those ofothers) as a rich source of information. Unclerstanding the various kinds of nonverbal communication improves both the sending and receiving of messages (see Yukel- son, 1998, for an in-depth discussion of nonverbal communication).

l(EY P0INT As much as 7(,o/o of human communi- cation is nonverbal.

Nonverbal messages are less likely to be under conscious control, and therefore they are harder to hide than verbal messages. 1’hey can give away our unconscious feelings and attitudes. For example, just before starting an aerobics class, an exercise leader asks a young woman how she is feeling. The young woman shrugs, looks down, frowns, ard mutters, “Oh, fine.” Although her words say everything is okay, the leader knows otbe wise from the nonver- bal messages being conveyed. Although nonverbal messages can be powerful, they are often diffrcult to interpret accurately. Thus, we have to be cautious in giving them meaning, andwe have to try to correctly judge the context.

Physical Appearance

Our first impression of a person often comes from physical appearance. We might think of someone as fat, skinny, handsome, sloppy. attractive,or homely. A detail can paek a large messag3. For example, 20 years

ago a male athlete who walk:d into a coach’s office wearing an earring would likely have been quickly escofted out. Now it is more accepted for males to wear earrings, and a different message is conveyed. Dress can convey powerful in:brmation. For example, a study by Greenlees, Bradle’6 Holder, and Thelwell (2005) found that athletes reported lower confidence when their opponent was u,earing sport-specific sportswear (as opposed to general sportswear).,A,th-

Nonverbal communication can convey as much-if not morc-of what a person is really thinklng and feellng as verbal communication can.

letes need to be careful about imparting information- whether positive or negative-through dress.

Posture

How we carry ourselves–our gait and posture-also sends a message. Someone who shuffles along with his head down and his hands in his pockets conveys sadness, whereas a bouncy step suggests a sense of control and coofidence, Athletes often reaognize frustrated or discouraged opponents by how they move. Wlien they see an opposing player hanging his head, they know it’s time to “go in for the kill.” Tennis greats Pete Sampras and Steffi Graf knew the importance of posture and never let their opponents know how they were feeling: Whether they made a great shot or blew an easy one, they looked and acted the same. This made Graf and Sampras tougher to beat because opponents could not tell when they were down. Relatedly, Furley, Dicks, and Memmert (2012) investigated the influence of nonverbal behavior in taking a penalty kick. They found that penalty kickers

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*.:* dominant body language (erect posture, head held *r- chin parallel to the ground) were perceived more p:*itively by soccer goalkeepers andplayers and were et.rected to perform better than players who displayed **:nissive body language (slouched posture, head wtj chin pointing down, shoulders hanging to the ;.*mt). Body language certainly influences athletes’

“*ereptions of their competitors; however, how that

p::;eption actually affects performance needs further si.stigation.

,Scslures

,#*”:ple’s gestures often convey messages, whether *r rct they want them to. For instance, folding your *s across your chest usually expresses that you’re :x*:r open to others, whereas locking your hands behind ,a1-:i;s’ fi sad connotes s uperi ority. Coaches oft en expres s s*nselves through gestures-sometimes if they .;.:=alize their thoughts to officials, they risk getting rssr-irn out of the game!

Wdy Position

.$:’Jv position refers to the personal space between g:u and others and to the position of your body with ,*spect to others. Body position is really an aspect of #r:.’:s*kr, which is the study of horv people com- i:aicate by the way they use space. An example ,:l 5ody position language is the coach surrounding

‘**iself with starting players rather than with reserves.

\{.any coaches stand next to starting players, connoting

*,;oritism. John Thompson, ex-basketball coach for Jq.rrgetown University, made it a habit to instead sit *,:iong the reserves to make them feel like valued xsrnbers of the team.

{*tching i;;uching is a powerful form of nonverbal com- :::lication that can be used to calm someone or :’a; express affection or other feelings, depending i:is rhe situation. We have become freer in recent ;.:*rs with the use of touching in sport, including ,=,=;’re embracing between males, than was socially aueptable years ago. However, with the increased ,w=sitivity regarding the issue of sexual harassment, :::*ches and teachers have to be especially careful ,.: :heir use of touching. You must make.sure that

,e touching is appropriate and is welcomed by the xllete or student. Touching should be restricted to

=blic places to minimize any misinterpretation of;: meaning of your touching.

Communication

Faeial Exprassion

Your face is the most expressive part of yourbody. Eye contact is particularly rmportant in communicating feelings. Getting eye co rtact usually means that your listener is interested in your message. When people feel uncomfortable or embarrassed, they tend to avoid direct eye contact and to look away. The smile is the universal bridge across language barriers and one of the most efftcient ways of communicating. Smiles and other facial expressionr, can both invite verbal com- munication and elicit fledback about how effective your communication has been.

Voice Characteristics

The sound of a voice can powerfully reinforce or undercut verbal communication. As the adage goes, “It’s not what you say but how you say it.” Thb voice’s quality often betrays true feelings, moods, and attitudes, revealing what we might never state verbally. Voice charactaristics include pitch (high or low), tempo (speed), volume (loud or soft), rhythm (cadence), and articulaion (enunciation).

Guidelines lor Sending Messages The following are guidelines for sending effective verbal and nonverbal nessages (Martens, 1987a):

. Be direct. People who avoid straightforward communication assume that others know what they rvant or feel. Rather than expressing their message directly, they.hint at what they have in mind*or they tell a third person, hoping the message will get to the intended recipient indirectly.

. ‘Aun your messc,ge.IJse “I” and o’my,” not o’we”

or “the team,” when referencing your messages. You disown your messages when you say, “The team fbels . . .” or “Most people think you are . . . .” What you’re saying is what you believe, and using others to bolster what you have to say irnplies cowardice in expressing yorr own messages.

. Be complete and specific. Provide the person to whom you ale speaking with all the information he needs to fully understand your message.

. Be clear and consistent, Avoid double mes- sages. “I really want lo play you, Mary, but I don’t think this is a good game for you. I think you’re a fine athlete, but you’ll just have to be patient.” This is an example of a double message-acceptance and rejec- tion-and it probably leaves Mary confused and hurl.

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Foundations ci Sport and Exercise Psychology

Double messages send coatradictory meanings, and usually the person sending them is afraid to be direct.

. State your needs andfeelings clearly. Because some societies (e.g., American) &own on those who wear their emotions on their sleeves, we tend not to reveal our feelings and needs to others. Yet to develop close relationships, you must share your feelings.

. Separatefoctfram opinion. State what you $gg, hear, and know, and then clearly identifu any opinions orconclusions you have about theso facts. You say to your son when he rqulru$ homp late one night, “I see you’ve been out with the Williamson kid again.” In the context in which you say it, your son will receive the message but not be certain of what exactly your concem is about the Williamson boy. A better way to send this message would be to say, “That was the Williamson kid, wasnot it?” (verifuing a fact) and then, “I’m concerned that you spend time with him. I’m afraid he’ll get you into trouble” (stating your opinion). Although your son may not be pleased with your opinion, at least he’ll understand it.

. Focus on one thing ot rr time. Have you ever begun discussing how to execule a particular skill and abruptly switchedto complaini,:g about how the team hasR’t been practicing well? Organize your thoughts before speaking.

, Deliver messages imwediately. V/hen you observe something that upsets lrou or that needs to be changed, don’t delay sending a message. Sometimes holding back can result in your exploding later abollt a little thing. Responding immediately also makes for more effective feedbaek than a delayed response does.

. Make s$re your.*ressage does not cantain a hidden agenda, whieh medns that the stated purpose of the message is not the same 6’s the real pwrpose. To determine if your message contaius ahidden agenda, ask yourself these two questions: Why am I saying this to this person? Do I really want the person to hear this, or is something else invol’zed?

. Be supportive. If you ‘irrailt another person to listen to your messages, do;r’t deliver them with threats, sarcasm, negative comparisons, or judgments.

Eventually the person will avoid communicating with you or simply tune you out whenever you speak.

. Be consistent with your nonverbal messages. Perhaps you tell a player it is okay to make an error, but your body gesfures and facial expressions contradict yow words. Conflicting messages confuse people and hinder fu trnre communication.

, Reixforee with repetitio,n. Repeat key poinu to reinforce what you are saying. However, don’a repeat too often, because this causes the other persor to stop listening. You can also reinforce messages b1′ using additional channels of communication*shoe a picture or video along with explaining a skill, for example.

. Make ytur message appropriate to the receiv er’sframe ofreference. Messages can be muchbetter understood if you tailor them to the experiences o!- the persoa with whom you are communicating. It is inappropriate, for example, to use complex language when speakjng to young athletes. They do not have the vocabulary to understand what you’re saying.

. Lookforfeedback that your message was accu- rotely tnterpreted. Watch for verbal and nonverbai signals that the person to whom yolr arc speaking is receiving the message you intended. If no signal i; given, ask questions ta solicit the feedback: “Do you undcrstand what I am telling you, Susan?” or ‘oAre you clear about what you should do?”

Along these liues, a quick way to remember man) of the main points in communication is noted by Glory: Kirubakar, aad Kumutha (2010) as the six Cs:

. Clear

. Concise

. Courteous

. Correct ‘Complete . Constructive

C olscovrn Activruy ls.i herps ya* f comprehend the guidelines for sending

eflective vcrbal message$.

Electronic Gommunication Communication has traditionally been seen as verbai conversations between two or more people. How- ever, technology has changed significantly in the past several years, and now coaches and athletes (i.e- coach-athlete, coach*coach, and athlete-athlete pairs I often communicate through electronic rneans such as e-mail, instant and text messaging, cell phones. Facebook, Twitter, and blogs. Social media is a risinq force in marketing and appears to be fully embraced by the sport industry. Teams, leagues, coachqs, ath- letes, and managers have all established social media

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I :::sences, primarily on Twitter (a microblogging site ” x.:r allows users to post their personal thoughts in ., lJ or fewer characters). Athletes in particular have – r*’._*aged in tweeting at a fast pace, which raises the :., :l:rstion “What are they saying?” Pegoraro (2010) , kl,:+rved athletes’tweets for 7 days and found that the

fr*:=ieS predominantly tweeted about their personal ., ,= and responded to fans’ queries. Thus, Twitter &{ears to be a powerful tool for increasing fan-ath-

s :nteraction. However, Browning and Sanderson i#,, :, interviewed 20 National CollegiateAthletic .fu.*-ciation student-athletes and found that Twitter $&is*:i riesents challenges given the ease with which fans i+tq ‘i rite negative things about athletes. Accordingly,

<:;i departments must be proactive in helping stu- ::.;:hletes use Twitter strategically, particularly in w*ding to detractors. Athletes need to be carefirl

r, posting on social media or when sending texts,

Comrnunication

athletes feel more comfortable communicating in this fashion because they are familiar with electronic com- munication devices. Tht,s, it has become necessary for coaches and sport psyehology consultants to familiar- ize themselves with electronic forms of communication in order to facilitate interactions with athletes.

Beqsutu$ q srag s s-Eflesliydtl__ (‘

lt’s not what you teilthem-it’s what they hear. ”

— R e J A -rerba””,,,r;g,T#oo”*J; i:::*;

So far we’ve focused on the sender side of communica- tion. However, people spend 40% of their communica- tion tirne listening (Satiue, Olson, & Whitney, 1973). In addition, research with 88 organizations has shown that listening is consistently rated as one of the most import- ant communication skills (Crocker, 1978). Although students learn rvriting and speaking skills, they seldom receive any formal training in listening. Before you read

about how to improve your listening skills, complete the short “Listening Skills Test” that follows to learn what specific skills you need to improve.

:=:is. or photos because these can quickly become ,,fu*,= =

to the world via the Internet. ., !.:+rt psychology consultants also are communicat- ,$Ss

=ore and more with their athlete clients tkough

::+nic means. Today’s generation Y is the first ,grys:ation to grow up with ali of these electronic .ffi;::s of communication (Burke, 2013).These young

I 0n :. Hesearch has revealed that a number of teacher and coach behaviors can facilitate communication. ,:, This is especially true for eonfirmation behaviors, which refer to communieation indicating that ., individuals are endorsed, recognized, and acknowledged as valuable and signifiiani, resulting in .’ increased motivation and affective learning (Ellis, 2000).Also important are clarity behaviors, which ‘i refer to how clear individuals perceive the teacher or coach as being, becattse clarity facilitates both1 cognitive and affective learning (Simonds, 1997).These behaviors include the following: ,, 0onlirmation Behaviors ‘ . Communication indicates an appreciation ol student or player questions or comments. , . Communication indicates that the coach or teacher believes that the student or player can do

well.

,, . Teacher or coach checks on understanding before going on to the naxt point. , . Communication indicates an interest in whether students or players are learning. , . Feedback is provided on student or player performance,

Clarity Behaviors . Teacher or coach uses clear and relevant examples. . Teacher or coach relates examples back to the concept or rule. . Teacher or coach uses concrete rather than abstract language. . Teacher or coach stays on task and does not stray from the main points. . Teacher or coach clearly explains the objectives for each assignment or drill.

229

230

Adapted, by permission, from R. Martens, 1982 Coaches guide rb sport psychorogy iChampaisn, lL: Humar Kineiics), 50.

Foundaiions of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Actiue Listening

The best way to listen better is to listen actively. Active listening involves attending to main and supporting ideas, acknowledging and responding, giving. appro- priate feedback, and paying attention to the speaker’s total communication. Active listening also involves

nonverbal communication, such as making direct eye contact and nodding to confirm that you understand the speaker. In essence, the listener shows concern for the content and the intent of the message and for the feelings of the sender.

Of all the things that ear’ make an individual feel accepted, significant, and worthwhile, none is more

Listemimg $kills Test

Rating scale

ttem Never Seldom Sometimes Often 1. You find listening to others uninteresting. 1 2 3 4 2. You tend to focus attention on the speaker’s delivery

or appearance instead of the message. 1 2 3 4 3. You listen more for facts and details, often missing

the main points that give the facts meaning. 1 2 3 4 4. You are easily distracted by other people talking,

chewing gum, rattling paper, and so on. 1 2 3 4 5. You fake attention, lookirg at the speaker but think-

ing ot other things. 1 2 3 4 6. You listen only to what is easy to understand. 1 2 3 4 7. Certain emotion-laden words interfere with your

listening. 1234 8. You hear a few sentenc€s of another person’s prob-

lems and immedlately start thinking about all the advice you can give. 1 2 3 4

9. Your attention span is very short, so it is hard for you to listen for more than a few minutes. 1 2 3 4

10. You are quick to find things to disagree with, so you stop listening as you precare your argument. 1 2 3 4

11. You try to placate the speaker by being supportive ihrough head-nodding and uttering agreement, but you’re really not involved. 1 2 3 4

12. You change the subject when you get bored or uncomfortablewithit. 1 2 3 4

13. As soon as someone sa’7s anything that you think reflects negatively on you, you delend yourself. 1 2 3 4

14; You second-guess the speaker, trying to figure out what he or she really means. 1 2 3 4

Add up your score. The following subiective scale will give you some help in determining how well you listen,

14*24 Excellenl 25-34 Good 35-44 Fair 45-56 Weak

;;ial than being listened to. If you really want people a… ;onfide in you, you should make a concerted effort :: listen to them. Sometimes people think they are ,i**rl,ing that they are available to others when they ,:.:ily are not. A coach may say ofherpolicy, “Sure, my :.sj?letes can come to see me any time they want. I have m ,:pen-door policy,” but her athletes may think, “The i –‘3ch doesn’t really listen to us. All she’s interested in is

=lling us what to do.” Good listening shows sensitivity

.end encourages an open exchange ofideas and feelings.

-{n active listener often paraphrases what the :peaker has said. These are some typical lead-ins for e paraphrase:

. What I hear you saying is , . .

. Let me see if I’ve got this right. You said . . .

. What you’re telling me is . . .

Asking specific questions to allow the person to :l:press his feelings is also part of active listening, as Li paraphrasing. Here are some examples:

Statement: “I am thinking about increasing my exercise times from 3 days a week to 5 days a rveek, but I’m not sure this is the best thing to do right now”

Question: “What do you gain or lose by increasing your exercise times?”

Paraphrase: “It sounds as though you’te strug- gling with trying to balance getting fit with other demands in your life.”

By paraphrasing a person’s thoughts and feelings,

-,.:u let the speaker know that you’re listening and that ,” Ju care. Often this leads to more open communica- n*n and exchange, as the speaker senses that you’re .:rerested. When you ask questions, avoid using the ::ierrogative why?-this can seem judgmental. Ros- rnteld and Wilder (1990) offered some additional ::iibrmation about active listening skills:

. Hearing should not be mistaken for listening.

. Hearing is simply receiving sounds, whereas listening is an active process.

. Hearing someone does not mean you’re listen- ing to the meaning of the message.

. [t is frustrating to the speaker when a receiver hears but doesn’t listen.

. Someone who finds herself not listening should practice focusing her concentration on the speakeL

Communication

Listening sometimes requires mental preparation. For example, before having an irnportant’discussion with your coach, dev,:lep a mental game plan for the exchange. That is, re hearse in your mind attending very carefullyto the nreaning ofthe coach’s messages.

KEY P0INT Active listening enhanees communi- cation because the speaker feels that she is being heard, acknowledgerl, and provided with appropriate feedback.

Supportive Listening Being a supportive listener communicates that you are “with’o the speaker and value the person’s message. Here are some tips for supportive listening:

. Use supportive behaviors as you listen.Ihese communicate the message that the other person is acknowledged, understood, and accepted. You are using supportive listening behaviors when you

o describe the other’s behavior instead oftrying to evaluate rr attack it;

o focus on immediate thoughts and feelings; o Err€ flot calculating or manipulative; o ask open-ended questions to encourage the

person to sl”.are his or her feelings; o are empathr:tic, not indifferent; and o remain open to new ideas, perspectives, and

the possibility of change. Along with these behaviors, use active attend-

ing behaviors, such as nodding your head and making clear, direct eye contact.

. Use confirming behaviors as you listen. Part of effective communication is letting peopleknow that you are with them in the conversation and that you understand their message, even if you do not agree with it. Use confinning behaviors (such as repfuas- ing what the person is saying) along with supportive behaviors to show you are paying attention, aecepting,

and understanding. This is especially important for coaches and teachers and other sport and exercise leaders. Participants usually look up to the leader, and a lack of attention on the leader’s pafi can be particularly disappc,inting to them.

. Use both veroal and nonverbal listening behav’ loru. Nonverbal befuaviors that communicate interest and attention include

o standing no more than a few ieet from the person,

o maintaining eye contact,

231

o making appropriate facial gestures, o facingthe speaker, and o maintaining an open posture.

Verbal behaviors should communicate an understanding and acknowledgment of what the speaker is saying and feeling.

Aware Listening Be aware that people react differently tothe way you communicate. Here are tips for aware listening:

, Beflexible. There is no one best listening strat- egy. Differeot situations require different strategies. People prefer or feel more comfcrtable with one style of listening compared with an,:ther. Some people simply like to talk, and they may appear unconcerned about your understanding. Others will give you time to think about what th’ey’ve said and will provide opportunities for feedbaek.

. Be alert for bariers and breqkdowns in com- munication. Barriers involve r:oise, such as other people talking while you are trying to listen to a par- ticular person, For example, coaches aild athletes often have to iisten above the roar of a crowd. It is useful to develop strategies for dealing with noise, such asasing nonverbal signals, B reakdowns o ;cur when messages are misinterpreted or misdirectel. Often, we do not know a breakdown has occurred until something bad happens that can bE traced back to the breakdown. We later discuss breakdowns at greater length.

lmpoilance of Empathy and Caring Ernpathy is the ability of a person to perceive, recognize, and understand the feelings, behaviors, intentions, and attitudes of others (Losoya & Eisen- berg, 2003) and has been lortg viewed as an impofiant prerequisite to effective communication. Jowett and colleagues (Jowett & Clark-Carteq2006; Lorimer & Jowett, 2009a,b) have begun to utcover how empathy functions in coach-athlete relationships. They found in one study that athletes were more capable than their coaches of inferring feelings of closeness (Jowetf & Clark-Carter, 2006). Looking orly at coaches, they observed that individual-sport ooaches were more accurate in predicting athlete feelings about the relationship than were team-sport coaches (Lorimer & Jowett, 2009a). The most likely explanation, the authors felt, was that individual-sporf coaches had more time to spend with each athlete and more often

developed a shared common focus with athletes. Most encouraging was the finding that coaches’ empathic accuracy improves with continued exposure to each athlete and when they receive feedback about what their athletes think and feel (Lorimer & Jowett, 2009b).

In a similar study, Lorimer and Jowett (201 1) found that sharing similar ideas (e.g., determining game strategy) helps athletes and coaches understand each other arrd empathize with each other’s thoughts and feelings. The authors recommend that both coaches and athletes should concentrate on the topic being dis- cussed or task undertaken and make frequent checks to establish that they understand what is going on rather thari simply make assumptions. These discussions should not be limited to the technical aspects of the sport but rather should encourage the athlete to discuss his or herthoughts and feelings about ongoing events.

These findings suggest that athletes and coaches are not always focused on sirnilar issues and that coaches may be less skilled at reading their athletes’ feelings and emotions than they think. eoaches, teach- ers, certified athletic trainers, and fitness instructors must, therefore, make concerted efforts to get to know their athletes, view them in social situations, and seek feedback from them about what they are thinking and feeling.

Lorimer (2013) suggests four ways to improve the accuracy of coaches’ empathy:

1. Gather information. This information can be about athletes or sport in general (“I know when athletes raise their voices they are gen- erally angry”), knowledge about a parlicular type of athlete (“I know when athletes stay after practice, they.generally are interested in improving their skills”), or knowledge about a specific situation or athlete (“I know when John raises his voice in training he is usually upset or worried’). Avoid biases. Be aware of possible biases and stereotypes and seek additional feedback before

making an assumption about an athlete.

Maintain approp riate I evel s of empathy. Make sure that you are aware of your own emo- tions and remain separate from your athletes emotionally. For example, while il migh! be appropriate to demonstrate empathy for an athlete whose father has just died, it might not be aBpropriate to demonsffate empathy simply because they made a couple of errors.

2.

3.

232

:. B e reJtexive. Constantly refl ect on your interac- tions with athietes so you can better understand rvhy you and your athletes act in certain ways

in certain situations.

Seiated to the topic of empathy is caring’ It is gen-

,ring, safe, suppoftive, and capable of providing experience of being valued and respected” (p.

;-:$;, Hs…, a leader who structures a caring climate .g=:cts participants and treats them with respect; ifu;,*rt to them; and makes them feel safe, comfort-

Comrnunication

leads to a number of desirable outcomes in youths. As

the adage goes, they don’t care what you know until

they know you care!

DISC0UEH Activity f0.2 gives you an opportunity to;lssess your listening skills.*div believed that the more an athlete, exerciser, or

lmient feels that the individuals who teach and mentor

xi”i care, the better the communication rvill be. Recognizing Breakdownsfu:on and colleagues (2007) define a caring climate :ii€ ,::re perceived by individuals as “interpersonally

,,*’i’x. and welcomed. Using the recently developed *=.n g Climate Questionnaire Q'{ewton et al-, 2007 ), 1g*,*.–Overway and colleagues (2009) found a sig-

i*;ant relationship between perceptions of a caring ,.dl=ate in underserued youths in a summer sports ,*s:p and their increased prosocial and decreased anti-

:,:. :al behaviors. This suggests that ueating a caing i.**,sate enhances the coach-athlete relationship and

.ts€il

ffi tr#

&#dm, f,lrss

S a caring rapport has been established off the field, an athletic trainer may be better able to calm and reassure

*n athlete when an iniurY occurs.

in Communication

Communicating effectively requires skill and effort on the part of both of the people involved. The process can be complicated and often breaks dorvn

(figure 10.2). Althougt technology (e,9., e-rnail) has improved the efficiency and speed of some types of communication, comparable progress has not been achieved in the interpersonal aspects of cornmunica-

tion (Burke, 2001). One of the main reasons cofilmu- nicating is sometimes problematic is that many people

believe that it is others, rather than themselves, who are ineffective, and therefore they do not see the need

to improve their own communication skills. Another

233

Foundations oi Sport and Exercise Psychology

Receiver’s not paying attention to the sender

Receiver’s tendency to evaluate and judge communication

Lack of trust between the individuals attempting to communicate

Socialization and hereditary ditferences, causing misinterpretations between the sender and receiver

Ditterences in the mental set or perception between people

Embarrassment (creates interference)

Tendency to tell people n’hat ihey want to hear

Difficulties in expression ()r reluctance to communicate

Belief that silence is satei

lnconsistency between actions and words

Screening of messages by assistants for efficiency

F!fftlR[i’i&,;: Barriers to efiective communication.

geneml issue leading to communication breakdowns is

a lack oftrust among people (e.g., teammates, coaches, exercise leaders, and exercisers). Good rapport and honesty need to be developetl between individuals before effective communication can occur. When breakdowns occur, they usually result from either sender or receiver failures.

Sender Failures Senders may transmit a messal;e poorly. Ambiguous messages, for example, are ineffective communica- tions. Say a coach tells an athlete that ifhe continues to do well in practice, he will be in the starting lineup when the season opens. Over the next few weeks, the coach compliments the athlete regularly and says nothing about him not starting. Two days before the start sf the season, the athlete is taken aback when he is listed as a reserye. In this case, the coach should have been more specific about the criteria for starting and should have given the athltte ongoing feedback.

Inconsistent messages also <,ause communication breakdowns. Nothing is more fr-rstrating than hearing one thing today and the opposite tomorrow For exam- ple, if a coach is always supportive during practice but is harsh and critical during games, athletes get confused and may even fall apari during competitions. Often inconsistency results wher verbal and nonverbal channels confl ict. Aphysical education teacher might ofler encouraging words to a student attempting a new skill while her body language and facial expression

convey disappointment and impatience. Physical educators want to establish credibility in their com’ munications, and consistency is a good route toward this goal. And it’s necessary to be consistent not onll’ with each participant but also among participants. For example, say a coach tells the team that anyone who is late to practice will not play in the next game. If the coach then enforces this policy when a couple of reserves are late for practice, he must also enforce it if the star player is late.

Receiver Failures Ineffective communication is a double-edged srvord. Receivers as well as senders can contribute to mis- communication. As an illustration, let’s look at Mary. an exercise leader, She is talking to Cindy, a member of her aerobics class who has missed several classes. “Cindy, I’ve missed you the past several weeks,” says Mary. “If you don’t keep up your regular exercise. you’ll get fat again. In fact, I already see those love handles.” Mary’s intent is to motivate Cindy to stop missing exercise classes, but Cindy hears only the “getting fat” and “love handles” patls. She has been overweight for many years and is sensitive to com- ments about her weight. What she hears Mary saying is

that she is getting fat, and she starts feeling depressed because she has worked so hard to lose weight. Had Mary been more aware of Cindy’s tendency toward sensitivity, however, she could have simply told Cindy that she missed her in class and was glad to see her

234

and exercising. Thus, in this case there was a 1em in both the sending and the receiving.

Apart from misinterpreting the message, receivers ie problems when they fail to listen. For example,

:her may convey information very well, but if her ts are looking out the window or thinking about

,;pcoming party, communication will break down. **:eceiver shares responsibility with the sender and

*”-=ld make every effort to listen. $..-senfeld and Wilder ( I 990) identifi ed three levels

”:;*rening. Level one is active listening (discussed *’;iously), which is the desired way of listening. :’1i1 t$ro refers to hearing only the content of the

when listening; this type of listening often i.imai;es the speaker feel that the listener is uninterested :-g::eoccupied. In level three, the listener hears only

of the message and thus true understanding is ijgc possible. In today’s rushed society, people are

Communication

of the situation. Team meetings can be problematic if the coach or leader does not set parameters or ru1es for the meeting. Suggested rules include the following:

. Everyone on the team must be receptive to the opinions of others (i.e., don’t be defensive or resistant).

. Be constructive, not destructive (e.g., criticize behaviors, not ;he person).

. Whatever is dLscussed in the meeting stays there (i.e., info::rnation is confidential).

. Everyone will have a chance to speak.

. Each team member should have at least one positive thing to say about everybody else.

Beauchamp, Maclachlan, and Lothian (2005) used a Jungian approach tc help improve communication. One importantpointwas that athletes need to approach interactions from the other person’s point of view. To achieve this empathy, the authors recommended role playrng in practices, whereby athletes are asked to act out different scenarios and seek to connect with other team members using preferences that are very different from their own. For example, placing players in situations in which their performance is critical (i.e., they don’t want to let teammates down) or where they feel pressure frcm the coach (i.e., they may be benched ifthey don’t performwell) may help athletes better appreciate what their other teammates are going through. This facilitates better communication and understanding of what the other person is experiencing and can enhance emgathy.

Gommunication for lmproving Team Coordination Typically, coaches develop game plans that emphasize the coordination of nll players on the team so that everyone is on the sarne page. For example, in soccer, all players must be in the right position and know their roles for the team to be effective. Eccles and Tran (2012) offer some suggestions for how coaches can communicate these plans to athletes:

. Use multiple .;ensory modes. Plans should be presented using diflbrent senses such as talking a game plan through, drawing it up on a whiteboard, demonstrating it with moveable magnets, showing a video, or providing a written playbook.

. Use redundancy. A concept called optimal redundancy underscores the need to repeat things

|#*: thinking about what they want to say rather than :,:’ ,*el-v paying attention to what the sender is saying ‘i,: :rre formulating a response. Poor listening can

rr=:i lead to interpersonal conflict and confrontation ,]r++*dussed later in the chapter) as well as frustration

;r-c l breakdown in communication.

‘:’S*prouing Gommunication

.i,,;:ough definite barriers to effective communica- ,’ ,* exist, we can improve communication through ,.ftm1-e exercises and attention. DiBerardinis, Barwind, 5,;:ringam, and Jenkins (1983) found that exer- *se= designed to improve interpersonal lelations in *;rm sporls did just that and that performance itself *mproved. In a more comprehensive study (Sullivan, .=’;”r3), a communication-skills training program ,.*at included seven interpersonal-communication ,.*:;srcises was developed for interactive-sport teams. .q”;:iletes indicated that the communication exercises rssed awareness levels of communication skills and .i :npetencies and provided valuable opportunities .5;r practicing communication skills (see “Impact ;:,- Interpersonal Training”). Therefore, carefully ,:isi gned interpersonal-communication training can ::rprove team morale and cohesion and open up lines +: communication.

-{,nother way to improve communication (especially .,.r a group or tearn) is to set up team meetings. These

=:eetings should be regularly scheduled (don’t wait

:,’-.r a problem to appear before you meet), focus on ::am difiiculties, and provide constructive assessment

235

Foundatians of Sport and Exercise psychology

from time to time so that others learn and remember them. Constant reminders, talking through the game plan, and providing players with a playbook can al1 increase redundancy.

. Use an enduring representation. When athletes are simply told to do somerhing (e.g., how to move during a fuIl-court press in basketball), the information is gone when the coach finishes the explanation. Sup- plement verbal instnrctions with tangible items such as handouts, recordings, or videos so that players can access play information at all times.

, Explain why. Playeti who learn the rationale behind a certain strategy ar3 more likely to be flexi-

ble during performance and be able to react better to changing circurnstances than are players who simply learn how to execute the strategy. If a play breaks down, players with a deeper understanding are more likely to be able to think on their feet and figure out an altemative strategy.

In addition to enhancing how plans are communi- cated to team members, coaches need to increase the chances that the players actually listen to and under- stand the plans. Here are a few suggestions:

, Enhance team members’ listening skilts. Encourage team members to follow the HEAR prin-

lmpact of lnterpersonal Trainino Sullivan (1993) assessed the effectiveness of his interpersonaf communication exercises. Athletes increased their awareltess and learned a great deal as evidenced by the following comments in reaction to the exercisr;s:

. I should listen more before I react to what has been said. ‘ I see myself differently than others see me. lt is scary to open up, but this makes it easier. . lt helps to understand what others expect of me. . lt helps to know flre goals of my teammates. ‘ I have a heightened sense of awareness of my pe,Eonalgoals and communication skills. . Laughing and sharing criticalemotions ease tensions.

Athletes also stated that they would focus on or practice the following communication skills: r I will not interrupt when others are speaking. . I will confront issues right away-they only get worse over time. . lwilltry not to make a$sumptions about what others are thinking. . I should ask for help from my teammates. . I willgive my opinion more to people with whom lfeel intimidated. . I will have more e’re contact with the person speaking. ln anotherapprogch 1o improving communication skills, Jones, Lavallee, andTod {2011) employed

the Enhancement of Leadership lnterpersonalTeamworkand Excellence (ELITE)8-week interveniion using reflective practice to enhance self-awareness of communication skills (verbal and listening). Using a case study approach, five athletes were asked lo

‘ describe the communication skills they used in in their last trairring session,r describe a compelition in which communication helped their performance, ‘ think about how cr:mmunication skills can be used in future competitions as well as outside

of sport, and . practice the skills they had discussed with their tearnmates Athletes also parficipated in interactive games and activities that gave them a chance to use

th€ir communication skils. Results of a communication questionnaire revealed that the athletes in the ELITE intervention improved their communication skills across the intervention and that these communication skills heped improve their sport performance.

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236

;iples: head up, eyes front, attend fully, and remain silent.

. Encourage questions. Athletes are often reluctant to ask questions because they dou’t want to sppeil “dumb.” In addition to encouragingquestions in meetings, provide time for athletes to ask questions

h private to avoid the social pressure of potentially rooking foolish in front of the team.

, Check that plans are received. Make sure players understand the game plans by asking players

n describe plans verbally or demonstrate on the field.

DISC0VER Activity 10.3 allows you to practice communicating with empathy.

One of the main reasons for wanting to improve ;ommunication skills is so athletes and coaches can maintain better interpersonal relationships. Rhind

Communication

and Jowett (2010) conducted one of the only studies that investigated the maintenance of coach-athlete relationships. After interviewing six athletes and six coaches, the researcters concluded that the following strategies (whichthe;r labeled the COMPASS method) were used to maintain coach-athlete relationships:

. Conflictmanagement. This consisted ofproac- tive sffategies (e.g., &Lking steps to clarify expectations and avoid conflict) a:rd reactive strategies (e.g., coop- erating during discu:ision of disagreernents).

. Openness. This involved talking about non- sport and personal issues and sharing feelings.

. Motivation. This involved coaches aud athletes demonstrating effort, motivating each other, demon- strating ability, and rnaking interactions enjoyable.

. Positivity. This refers to a coach’s adaptability (e.g., changing one’s behavior to suit the prefer- ences of the coach/athlete), fairness (e.g., showing

Enhancino Gommunicati0n Among Goaches, Athletes, anrl Parents

ln today’s world, the ability and desire to communicate instantaneously with people in any country have increased dramatically.Taking advantage of newtechnology, MentalTraining lncorporated (the

central mission of which is to help 1 million athletes build mentaltoughness by the 2016 Olympics) developed an application called MentalApp.

MentalApp helps athletes learn and practice 15 key mentalskills and lrack performance improve- ments. Short vldeos teach the fundamentals of each mental skill as well as how and when to practice.

Then, using an innovative monitoring chart, athletes can easily set goals and track how committed they are to theirtraining. Because MentalApp is compatible with allsmartphone, tablet, and computer devices, athletes everywhere and in any sport are able to gain access.

The app also enhances communication among coaches, parents, and athletes. One of the most challenging parts of being an effective coach or supportive parent is overseeing athlete progress. Coaches and parents might wonder what’s happening with. sleep, nutrition, and hydration or whether athletes are following through with their commitments when parents and coaches aren’t present. A dashboard shows a real-time summary of altathletes as well as a more detailed view of any specific athlete. Parents can see how their children are preparing and pedorming, right from their device.

To see a video of MentalApp in action, go to www. mentaltraininginc.com/mentalapp.php. ln addition, one screen shot from MentalApp highlights the enhanced communication possibilities.

The screen shot shows a specific athletes monitoring chart, called an mChart, of made (green dot) and missed (red dot) goals. Coaches can quickly see whethereach athlete is follow- ing through with commitments (e.9., eating properly, staying hydrated) and which athletes are struggling to understand or follow through on directions and thus rnight need additional motivation or clarification.

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Food quality good?

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237

Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology

good sportsmanship), and exlernal pressures (e.g., positively dealing with events outside of the coacU athlete’s sporting life).

, Advice. This included giving and receiving feedback in a positive and open way and praising each other when appropriate.

. Support. This involved showing that one was committed to the coach-athlete relationship and avai 1- able for the other person in terms ofboth sport-related and personal issues.

. Social networks. This involved spending time with each other, especially away from the track, field, or court.

Dea|ing With Confrqnt4lon Many times, the nature of tte communication is inherently diffrcult. For example, when coaches have to inform players that they are being cut from the team, removed from the starting lineup, orpunished for a rule violation or for having made a critical performance error, athletes can get angry, upset, and defensive. Interpersonal conflict, which can lead to confrontation, has the dimensions of content and emotion (LaVoi, 2007). If an athlete has just a moderate amount of content conflict with the coach (e.9., disagreeing about how best to train anaero- bically and aerobically), this can lead to a positive interaction as long as they both express their points of view unemotionally. However, emotional conflict (both coach and player are angry) can be debilitative to performance and interpersonal relationships. The inability to differentiate between content and, emo- tional forms ofcommunication causes most interper- sonal conflicts and eventual corrfrontations (Mallett, 2013).

Along these lines, a study focusing on interpersonal conflict in female athletes noted that interpersonal confTict (which can turn into confrontation) was prevalent with teammates in their sports and was more destructive than performance conflict (Holt, Knight, & Zukiwski,2012). Strategies that athletes felt would help alleviate, or at least manage, the interpersonal conflict included

. engaging in team building early in the season,

. addressing conflicts earl1.,

. engaging mediators in the resolution of con- flict, and

. holding structured (rather than unstructuredt team meetings.

The authors also noted that athletes need to k taught conflict resolution skills because the resolutior of conflict is critical to the effectiveness of teams. These skills might include enabling team member to identify the type and source of conflict, recogniz- ing desirable conflict, and implementing appropriat*, conflict resolution using cooperative (win-win) nego. tiation strategies rather than competitive (win-loser strategies (Deutsch, 2006).

If these types of conflicts and communications ar* not handled carefully, then communication break- downs can occur, often leading to confrontations. -{ confrontation is usually a face-to-face discussiolr among people in conflict. Despite its negative con- notations, confrontation when properly used can helg both parties understand the issues more clearly withou: feeling undue stress, guilt, or inadequacy. Confronta- tions are useful not only in major conflicts but also tc help clear the air in minor conflicts.

IGY P0INT Use active and supportive listenin-e techniques to avoid breakdowns that prevent effective communication.

Avoid con&ontations when you are angry.It has beec said that someone who speaks when she is angrl will make the be$t speech she will forever regret.. Many people feel uncomfortable with confrontations because they anticipate a negative, stressful encounter- When athletes and coaches or sfudents and teachers have a confrontation, there is, in addition, a differenc* in power, which can be problematic. Thus, participants frequently avoid the meeting and let things fester. Otherpeoplejump to arguments and escalate feelings of hostility. Neither approach resolves the problem.

In what situations should you use confrontationl Decide by considering the purposes a confrontation might serve. The confrontation should not be meant tc put other people “in their place” but rather to carefu ll1′ examine the behavior and its consequences. For exam- ple, if a fitness instructor believes that his supervisor was wrong in reprimanding him in front of a client “just because” he used a different lifting technique than usual, then the instructor should meet with the supervisor to resolve their differences rather than let the situation fester and turn into a full-blown incident.

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Cornmunication

ual Communication les and Manauinq Conflict -eople typically find conflict difficult and develop different styles for copirrg with these situations. Thomas (2003) highlighted these styles in a model termed the Thomas-Kilrnann model, and Mallett

12010, 2013) elaborated on the model regarding sport competition. The five styles are as follows:

. Competing (dominating) involves assertive but uncooperative behaviors between two parties who are concerned about themselves and their own goals rather than others. This style is best ,.:sed when decisive action is necessary and the best outcome is sought for the person making the decision, For example, a coach who needs to choose the final runner for a relay chooses the fastest person even though he likes another runner better.

. Collaborafing (integrating) involves assertive and cooperative behaviots between parties where high concern exists for both the self and others. Collaborating is especially effective when both parties

have positive contributions to make to solve a problem. For example, coaches and athletes can both have input into setting up consequences for individuals who fail to meet team expectations of behavior,

. Compromlslng involves a balance between unassertive and assertiv€, or between cooperative and uncooperative behaviors where moderate concern exists for both the setf and others. Com’ promising works well when time is short and one needs a quick solution or an interim step toward resolving a more complex issue. For example, coaches may allow players to afiend practices late because they know they are preparing for midterm exams.

. Accommodating (obliging) involves cooperative and unassertive behaviors where low con- cern exists for the sell and high concern exists for others. ln this approaclt to conflict, people view

relationships with others as more important than satisfying their own needs. For example, although

a coach feels that a star player missing a practice should result in missing the next game (which

happens to be for the league title), the other players on the team encourage the coach to find another

consequence because the team needs the player, Thus, for team harmony and cohesion, the coach

accommodates their wishes. . Avoiding involves uncooperative and unassertive behaviors where krw concern exists for the

self and others. Avoidance can be used either to ignore the conflict and hcpe it goes away or as a deliberate strategy for controlling the situation. Although it should be used rsparingly, avoidance may

be appropriate, such as when a coach deliberately avoids a player’s issue in order to let the player

calm down before addressing the issue.

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Assumptions lor Approaching a Confrontation r)nce you decide that confrontation can be useful

=nd appropriate, you need to know how to confront.

Cerstein and Reagan (1986) discuss seven cooperating

:ssumptions for approaching conflict:

. All needs are legitimate and important and nust be attended lo. When all needs are considered to be of equal importance, the focus becomes meeting

these needs instead of meeting your own need. For example, if a coach believes an athlete is not working hard, then both the athlete’s and coach’s needs should

be considered (especially the reasons underlying each point of view) in trying to resolve this conflict.

. Tl’terc are enough resources to meet all needs. The human potential to create new ideas and resources

has no limit. Al1 of us collectively know more than any one ofus.

. In every individual lie ttntapped power and capacity, and people in conflict know tthat they need. Coaches and exercise leaders should not impose soiu-

tions based on their or.*’rn ideas of what the problem is with the athlete orpartioipant. Imposing solutions with- out recognizing individual needs will create unhappy athletes and participants. Therefore, participants should

be encouraged to offer solutions to problems.

. Ptocess is as important qs content because it provides dircction an,l foas. Process is the flow of feelings, thoughts, and events. Many times the listener gets caught up in the specifics of the content (and oftentimes thus rehearses an attack) while missing important clues and information about what is going

on with the person communicating.

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Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Dos and Don’ts When lnitiatino Gonfrontation Do

. Convey that you value your relationship with the person.

. Go slowly and thinli about what you want to communicate.

. Try to understand tlre other person’s position.

. Listen carefully to what the other person is trying to communicate. Don’l

. Don’t cornrnunicate the solution. Bather, focus on the problem. We are often overly eager to tell others what they must do instead of letting them figure it out.

. Don’t stop communicating. Even if the confrontation isn’t going as you planned, keep commu- nicating about the problem in a constructive manner-

. Don’t use “put-downs.” Sarcasm and attacks usually alienate people. A confrontation is not a competition, and the idea is not to win it. The idea is to solve a problem together.

. Don’t rely on nonverbal hints to communicate your thoughts. You need to be direct and forthright in communicating. Now is not the time for subtle nonverbal cues.

Adapted, by permission, from R. h/artens, 1982 Coaches guide to spott psychology (Champaign, lL: Human Kinetics), 56.

. Improving silttations is dffircntfrom solving problerns. Dealing with situ’ltions helps one focus on the underlying causes rather than just eliminate the problem or symptom. Fcr example, punishing someone for being constantly late may alleviate the problem, but the causes of why she is constantly late still remain.

. Evetyone is rightfrom his or her ov,n perspec- tive.It is important to see the situation from the other person’s perspective. In confrontations, people spend an inordinate amount of time defending their point of vierv, which simply solidifies that they are right. There are always two sides to ever/ story and we must be willing to listen to the other r;ide.

. Sohttions and resolutions are temporary states of balance and arc not absolute or timeless. Circum- stances can change and thus solutions may need to be altered and renegotiated to keep up with changing times. Many times a relationship is a balancing act, so we must be flexible and change as necessary.

Detiygl’1rg Constructiue Criticism

Although we generally u,ant to be positive, there are times when criticism is necessary. Unfortunately, many people take criticism as a threat to self-esteem, They concentmte on defending themselves instead of on listening to the message. Some exemplary research and application ofthe research indicate that

the sancllvich *pproach is the most effective w8] tr: give criticism (Smith & Smoll, 1996; Smoll & Smitli. 1996). The sandrvich approach is a technique for offer- ing constructive feedback in a sensitive yet effective manner. It consists of three sequential elements:

1. A positive statement

2. Future-oriented instructions 3. Acompliment

Let’s take a closer look. Aparticipant who has made a mistake typically anticipates a negative remark from the coach or teacher. Often the person tunes out the anticipated unpleasant message and never hears it. To ensure that the individual attends to the first comment. make it positive. Appropriate positive phrases might be “Nice try Janet,” “Good effort, Marty,” or “What a tough pitch to hit!” Once the person has become recep- tive through hearing the opening (positive) comment. he will also pay attention to the second part, the instruc- tional feedback, HoweveE forthe sandwich approachto

be effective, the recipient of the communication must perceive the positive statements as sincere and not just as efforts to make him feel better. When implementing this technique, be careful not to impart hollow praise,

The key aspect of the sandrvich approach is the future-oriented instruction- After gaining the person’s attention, provide the critical instructional feedback- behaviors or strategies for the person to use next time he or she performs the skiil. Keeping the instruction

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3 oriented keeps the person from thinking about rrror immediately (thinking about an error will ‘, result in repeating it). The message should be : l,vhat to do next time, not a comment that rid-

embarrasses, or crittcizes- The following are ipies of future-oriented instructions :

After a ground ball goes through a player’s legs, say, “Next time you get a hard grounder, just get down on one knee and block the ball with your body.”

After a student who is trying a new skill on the baiance beam falls off, say, “You really need to concentrate on keeping your eyes looking forward to help maintain your balance.”

Communication

The flnal part of the sandwich is a compliment. After giving the instructional feedback, make sure the individual still feels good about the performance. Ending the interaction or a positive note makes it more likely that the instructio r will be remembered. It also helps build trust and rapport; the individual realizes that making a mistake isn’t the end of the world and that people can learn from their errors. See figure 10.3 for an example of the complete sandwich delivered by an instructor to a sturlent who keeps getting out of step during aerobics darrce class.

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p olscovrn Acrivity 10.4 herps you prac- f tice providing crlnstructive criticism.

3.’You are looking good. Keep up the good work.”

2, “Nefi time, try to s{ow down and not get ahead of the music.”

1. “Sally, you’re really working hard out th?rel’

The sandwich approach to delivering constructive criticism.

Coach-Athlete Relationsh ip

The coach-athlete relationship is one of the most important relationships in sport because it has been shown to likely determine the athletes satislaction, self-osteem, and performance accomplish- ments. Because previous models proved inadequate, Jowett and colleagues (Jowett, 2003;Jowett & Cockerill, 2003) proposed an alternative model of the coach*athlete relations;hip. Three interpersonal constructs were selected to form the basis of the naw model of the coach-athlete relationship.

C/oseness rellects the emotional tone that coaches and athletes experience and express in describing their relationship. Terms such as liking, trust, and respeot indicate the level ol closeness.

Co-orientation occurs when relationship members have established .l common frame of ref- erence, namely shared goals, values, and expectations. Open communication facilitates the development of co-orientation.

Complementarity refers to the type of interactions in which the coach and athlete are engaged. This reflects coaches’and athletes’acts of cooperation.

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Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Coach-Athlete Relationshlp (continued )

A summary of findings from severalstudies is presented next:

. At the elite level, coach-athlete relationships are underlined by mutual respect, care, trust, concern, support, open communication, shared knowledge and understanding, and clear roles.

. There is typically a honeymoon period at the start of a coach-athlete relationship, but negative aspects (e.9., lack ol trust, emotional closeness, or commitment) can emerge as the relation- ship continues.

. Negative closeness (distrust), disorientation (incongruent goals), and noncomplementary transactions (power struggles) together can compromise the quality of the relationship and its effectiveness.

, Because of the importance of the coach-athlete relationship, socialskills should be incorpo- rated into coach education programs,

. The quality of coach*athlete relationships (espeeially with younger athletes) is influenced a great deal by parents, who generalty provide a range of information, opportunities, and exten- sive emotional support (Jowett & Timson-Katchis, 2005).

LEABNING AIDS

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t ” UMMAffiY1. Describe the eommunication process.Effective comrnunication takes work and effort. Communication is a process. Basically, we cornrnunica&.r in two ways: interpersonally and intrapersonally. lnterpersonal communication involves both verbal aml.: nonverbal communicalion, whereas intrapersonal communication is communicating with oneself w&,.. self-talk. .,

2. Describe how to eend messages more effectively. :: Effective communication, both verbal and nonverbal, is essential for positive interactions. ln nonverM:. communication, such factors as physicalappearance, posture, gestures, body positioning, and touchir€,: are critical. Effective verbal communication includes such characteristics as being clear and consistent- ,

f;. Describe how to receivrs messages more effectively. Active listening is the most useful way to become more effective at receiving messages. lt involv* ,l attending to main and supporting ideas, acknowledging and responding, and giving appropriate feedback as well as using nonverbal cues such as eye contact and nodding one’s head to show understanding. , r

4. ldentify what causes breakdowns in communication. Effective communication is complex, and breakdowns often occur either in sending or in receiving a message. Senders who convey messages that are ambiguous or inconsistent can cause communicatioe breakdowns. Similarly, receivers who do not pay close attention to a message can also cause ineffective communication.

E. Explain the prccess of using confrontation, Confrontation is a way ol communicating, and although most people view confrontation as negative, it can lead to a mutualsolution. Part of successfully resolving a problem is recognizing when and why a confrontation may be appropriate. The critical component is to express your feelings in a constructive manner.

6. Discuss how to offer constructive criticism. Constructive criticism can be provided through what is known as the sandwich approach. This involves a positive statement, futrrre-oriented instructions, and a compliment. This type of criticism avoids the negativism that usually a:companies critical remarks and allows people to focus on the positive aspects of their behavior.

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Communication

YERMS S

rsonal communication rbal communication

lcommunication

proxemlcs confirmation behaviors clarity behaviors active listening supportive listening

aware listening empathy confrontaticn sandwich acproach

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r ui 0uE$T[&rus ..:. Discuss the five steps of the communication process. ,I Describe three types of nonverbalcommunication, giving examples from applied settings. I Define active listening. How can practitioners enhance their listening skills? c Discuss three types of breakdowns in communication, including examples of each type. i Describe the process you would use when confronting someone. : Describe how you would help athletes become more assertive in their communication. *

Three concepts have been shown to provide a good theoretical basis for unde’standing the coach-athlete relationship. Discuss and provide examples of closeness, co-orientation, and complementarity.

B Describe five of the principles for approaching a confrontation. * Discuss three strategies that female athletes noted to help deal with interpersonalconflict. !’I Coaches generalty have plans or strategies that they want their athletes to execute in an upcoming

competition. Discuss three techniques for enhancing the probability that the athletes receive these plans and that coordination occurs among teammates.

::, Discuss how electronic communication has changed the way we communicilte in sport and some of the effects of this relatively new way of communication.

iTleAL Th{{NKiffi G 0&iEST !&r\!S 1, As a paid consultant, you are asked to devise a guide for teachers and coe,ches at a local high school

to help them communicale more effectively with their students and athletes, What are the most import- ant guidelines you would include in your guide? What barriers are most likely to undermine effective communication?

2. As a coach, you have just had a brief confrontation with an athlete about breaking some team rules. He has stormed out of practice mad and upset. Soon you are to meet with the athlete and likely will have to confront him about his behavior-and possibly punish him for his actions. How would you prepare for this meeting, and what principles would you use to make this confrontatirn a positive meeting? How might the athlete best prepare for this encounter? How might you have pre vented this confrontation in the first place?

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